January 2010 Issue

Adult Learners: A Challenge for Supervisors
By Lynne Nannen Robertson, PhD, RD, LD
Today’s Dietitian
Vol. 12 No. 1 P. 46

Suggested CDR Learning Codes: 1070, 6000, 6030; Level 2

Dietitians who manage or supervise are required to wear several hats—sometimes more than one at a time. Clinical expertise, practical experience, and management training do not necessarily prepare a dietitian for an essential but often-overlooked task: teaching. Although most dietitian-managers readily recognize and prepare for formal training and in-service sessions, many probably do not realize that education and training go on every day in nearly every interaction with subordinates.

To be successful, managers must develop the skills to convey information and give clear and concise instructions. Managers also need to sell ideas, promote philosophies, and provide the leadership that others expect of them. To communicate effectively, a manager needs to understand employees and how they think.

This article will explore the dynamics of teaching adults effectively by examining the special ways adults learn and incorporate new information.

It is a mistake to think we can teach adults in the same way we teach children. Adults are not just children who have grown older. In every way, they present the teacher, trainer, or manager with challenges. Pedagogy is the practice of teaching children wherein the teacher provides the information and the children are expected to learn. Most children accept pedagogic methods as given. Andragogy is the art and science of providing education so adults can learn. The instructor makes the information available and has the task of motivating the adult to want to learn. Adults present challenges in ways children do not.

Principles of Adult Learning
• Self-concept: Adults are self-directive and like to have a voice in what they are to learn. They know what information will be helpful and useful to them. They will study and do their best to learn and understand anything that may help them grow and perform their job more easily and efficiently. However, they will not study and learn simply because an instructor tells them the material is something they should know.

Adults like to work at their own speed. A group of adults taking a home study course may complete the entire program in one week even if they are told they need to do only one lesson each week. The secret of this learning process is to provide information they want to have and will use.

• Experiences: Unlike children, adult learners can draw on previous experience as a rich resource for new learning. A teacher can take advantage of previous learning by having the student think about how a particular task was done, and new information can be presented as a variation of what is already known. For example, if a cook is asked to use a new appliance, he or she will be able to use it with very little instruction if shown the similarities between the new appliance and a familiar one.

• Readiness: Adults need to be ready to learn. They can be shown that they need to learn more to advance (eg, to gain a promotion or merit raise). Adult employees who have the desire to advance will be eager to learn information that can prepare them for that advancement. Also, if they believe learning new tasks, skills, or procedures will help them assist their clients and win their peers’ respect, they will focus on learning.

• Time perspective: Adults like to learn information they can apply to their work immediately or in the near future. Experts agree that the best learning involves a short 15- to 20-minute instructional session followed by a 20- to 30-minute practice session. During the practice session, learners can test concepts and discover how they can apply them to their work.

• Orientation to learning: Adult learning needs to be problem centered. Each learning session, regardless of whether it is a two-minute on-the-job session or a 10-hour home study course, will be more effective if the students understand the problem they need to solve. By seeing the problem clearly, they will be receptive to ideas that will help them perform the task in a better way, thereby doing a better job of solving the problem. Most adults will study harder and do more research than is expected if they realize it will help them do a better job of solving problems they face at work. They do not do well when they are expected to learn solely “for the love of learning.”

How Adults Learn
• Climate: Adults work best in an atmosphere of respect and friendliness, and they prefer collaboration and mutuality to competition. They do better when the learning takes place in an informal setting rather than in a classroom-style environment.

The best way to handle the setup for a session is to gather everyone around a table. Provide paper for notes and, if possible, give them a brochure or packet of information to take with them. Most adults feel the learning process is supplemented if they have a handout to take away from the learning session.

• Planning: Adults like to help with the planning. They will suggest topics to include in future sessions, often with the claim that others need the material. Adults prefer not to admit there are areas of knowledge with which they are unfamiliar and would rather suggest a topic as a learning situation for a group. An adult educator who does not ask for learner input into planning is missing a wonderful resource.

• Assessment of needs: Adults have a very good understanding of their own abilities and capabilities and can diagnose their own need to learn. Most adults prefer to ask for instruction in an area before someone asks them a question they cannot answer.

Educators need to be alert to signals from adults indicating a need has developed. Sometimes that need calls for an immediate instructional session. Managers will find the greatest success if they remember that learning needs to be timely.

• Formulation of objectives: Adults like to formulate objectives through mutual negotiation. If a manager is planning a series of sessions on a topic, it is wise to invite some key players in the department to work on the who, what, where, when, why, and how of the educational process.

• Design: Adults want learning to take place when they are ready to learn and will better understand information when instructors present it in problem units. For example, if a new computer program has been purchased, the employees who will be working with it want and need to know how to do the job at hand. They do not need to know how computers are made or the intricacies of software designs. Adults will assimilate task-oriented learning much more readily than theory.

• Activities: Adults like to use experimental techniques to reinforce learning. The best way to convince them that a particular method or product is superior is to have them try several products or methods and decide for themselves which is better. When they buy a car, they may read about several, test drive a few, and narrow down their selection.

• Evaluation: Adults want to evaluate the success of the learning process for themselves. They do this by deciding whether they learned enough to do the job successfully or whether they need to know more. The level of expertise they desire is as individual as the learners themselves. Some people want to know all there is to know about a subject so they will never be caught without the right technique, information, or answer. Others want to know just enough to be able to perform and will learn more only when shown that more knowledge will be to their advantage.

How to Train
Training means directing or leading the growth of a person and helping them move forward. Training is the way for successful managers to build constructive job attitudes while guiding employees in the process of improving their work methods. Positive attitudes are the results of helping employees increase their knowledge and self-confidence.

The first step in learning how to train others is to learn how to develop well-planned behavioral objectives that include the following

• Who: the people you hope to develop;

• What: the change to be made;

• Where: the area of the operation where the change is needed;

• When: the time during which the change shall be accomplished;

• Why: the reason the change is to be made; and

• How: the procedure that will be used.

A good behavioral objective states the kind of action or change an employee is expected to exhibit when he or she has been given a specific amount and kind of information. This can be accomplished if the trainer does a good job of explaining the subject and then motivates the student to learn what to do and how to do it. There should be a plan for each training session, such as the following:

• Start with an idea of what you will discuss.

• Develop a vital presentation in a logical form and sequence.

• Speak clearly and loudly.

• Explain all words that may be new to the learner.

• Use handouts and visual or audio/visual aids as appropriate for the subject matter.

• Involve the group in discussion or demonstration as often as possible.

Keep the training session short. The average adult’s attention span is between eight and 20 minutes. Practice or hands-on exercises are the best way to reinforce learning. Most adults need to practice new methods or jobs several times before good habits replace old ones. Close each session with a summary to help the learners grasp the full meaning of the presentation.

Any job you undertake, including teaching, has the same basic ingredients: preparation, motivation, presentation, application, and evaluation.

Preparation means having a plan of action or strategy. Assembling the tools and information needed to successfully present the information is essential. Behavioral objectives help the teacher and the learner know when the student has learned the procedure or job correctly. They set the standard against which to judge the learner’s performance.

There are three kinds of knowledge that a teacher will convey to the learner:
• General concepts: those that are directly related to the procedure and those that are essential to performing the task;

• Technical theories and principles: the scientific knowledge of health principles (includes legal and mathematical information); and

• Specific details: the steps necessary to perform a job correctly and efficiently.

Motivation means finding ways to inspire employees to want to learn the new job, technique, or concept. To motivate learners, instructors must show them how it is in their own best interest to know the material. They must know the reason for learning so they respond to the instructions. The teacher should make learning easier, faster, and more orderly. Learning is a neverending process that results in changed behavior. Well-trained employees are valuable assets to any organization.

Presentation means presenting the material in an interesting way and using a variety of tools and presentation techniques. Know your learners so you can build on existing knowledge. Show how the material being presented is important to their job success.

Application means providing the learner with the opportunity to apply the new knowledge continually until it becomes familiar and natural. The employee may find that the information or method is different from what he or she has used in the past, so the application step requires unlearning the old and learning the new. The instructor needs to observe learners as they perform the steps to ensure they do them correctly.

Evaluation means helping learners judge their own ability and decide whether they have learned the job well enough to be proud of their work. This process tests the teacher’s ability to present the information and the learners’ ability to put it into practice successfully. Part of the evaluation process is to look at the learning objectives and determine whether they have been achieved.

The Four-Step Method
Training involves the following four steps:

• Explain: Tell the employee what information he or she will receive and why it is important. Be certain the learner understands how he or she will use the knowledge in the job and why that job is important to the operation’s success.

• Demonstrate: Show in a logical step-by-step procedure how the job should be done, why it should be done that way, and why each step is necessary. In addition, offer any acceptable variations to the basic method.

• Do: Ask the employee to practice what he or she has learned in either a real-life situation or a mock situation arranged for the practice session. The mock situation should closely mirror reality so the employee will be able to transfer the practice to a real-life situation.

• Evaluate: Watch closely as the employee performs the job over the next several days and spot check his or her performance for several weeks. Provide the employee with positive feedback for the parts that he or she does correctly. Also discuss the parts that the person is not doing as instructed to determine whether the method the employee has devised is an improvement over the previously accepted method. If there is an obvious fault in the alternative method, make suggestions for altering the method that will result in the needed improvement.

Remember that training is continuous and repetition is key to learning. Close follow-up can reveal problems before damage occurs and bad work skills become habits. Teachers should keep records of each part of the training to ensure the new employee understands every part of the job.

Objectives
The purpose in setting objectives is to establish standards of learning. By determining what outcomes are expected, the teacher can plan objectives that will serve as goals for achieving these outcomes. Educators believe that learning is built on itself through a process of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Knowledge is the beginning level and requires two elements to be successful: an attentive and well-motivated learner and a set of learning experiences. The latter includes an accurate version of a piece of information communicated to the learner by means of print, speech, pictures, illustrations, or other media.

Objectives written for the knowledge level use an infinitive such as “name.” For example, “Upon completion of the lesson, the learner will be able to name. ...” Similar words that might be used are recognize, list, memorize, label, repeat, record, define, select, know, identify, or match.

A direct object of a knowledge-level objective may be “rules.” For example, “Upon completion of the lesson, the learner will be able to list the rules for sales tax.” Similar words that may be used are vocabulary, terminology, definitions, places, events, sequences, principles, processes, sources, terms, facts, symbols, methods, or names.

The more complex and higher categories require more sophisticated learning experiences. More motivation, activity, and participation on the part of the learner are necessary.

Comprehension involves the ability to translate and interpret. Learners do more than memorize facts; they understand why the facts are true.

Objectives written for the comprehension level use an infinitive such as “explain.” For example, “Upon completion of the activity, the learner will be able to explain the necessary steps in the assessment process.” Similar words that may be used are describe, express, estimate, identify, interpret, discuss, review, predict, or report.

A direct object of a comprehension level objective may be “methods.” For example, “Upon completion of the activity, the learner will be able to describe the methods of cleaning.” Other direct objects that may be used are principles, theories, essentials, generalizations, relationships, conclusions, samples, factors, or qualifications.

Application. To prepare for an even higher level of learning, the teacher needs to develop educational objectives on the application level. Just as comprehension is built on knowledge, application is built on knowledge and comprehension. The learner will not only know facts and understand why they are true but will also be able to use the information to do the job.

Objectives written for the application level use an infinitive such as “develop.” For example, “Upon completion of this session, the learner will be able to develop the plan.” Similar words that could be used are generalize, restructure, transfer, employ, apply, use, choose, relate, organize, or classify.

A direct object of an application-level objective might be “theories.” For example, “Upon completion of this session, the learner will be able to organize the theories of salesmanship.” Other direct objects that could be used are laws, situations, meanings, generalizations, conclusions, methods, procedures, abstractions, principles, or effects.

Analysis is an even higher level of learning built on knowledge, comprehension, and application. The analysis level includes elements, relationships, and organizational principles. The learner can see a situation and know how the facts that have been learned, the understanding of the facts, and the ability to apply them can be used to analyze the situation and reach a conclusion.

Objectives written for the analysis level use an infinitive such as “differentiate.” For example, “Upon completion of the project, the learner will be able to differentiate between the several choices.” Similar words that could be used are distinguish, experiment, solve, detect, appraise, compare, calculate, inventory, question, criticize, contrast, examine, or identify.

A direct object of an analysis-level objective might be “intentions.” For example, “Upon completion of the project, the learner will be able to compare the intentions of the two plans.” Other direct objects that could be used instead of intentions are parts, statements, evidence, assumptions, relationships, conclusions, particulars, hypotheses, statements, themes, arguments, consistencies, elements, or theories.

Synthesis. In the next level of learning, the learner is required to make plans and set them into motion by using what they have learned in the four preceding levels. They start with their own ideas and propose an outcome.

Objectives written for the synthesis level use an infinitive such as “develop.” For example, “Upon completion of this course, the learner will be able to develop a new method.” Similar words that may be used are write, set up, manage, specify, transmit, originate, assemble, modify, classify, or collect.

A direct object of a synthesis-level objective may be “patterns.” For example, “Upon completion of this course, the learner will be able to formulate the patterns that will be used by other workers.” Other direct objectives that may be used are specifications, objectives, concepts, relationships, schemes, theories, communications, designs, operations, or structures.

Evaluation is the highest level of cognitive learning. It requires the learner to find internal evidence and external criteria to prove that learning took place. They must look at a sample situation and judge the probability of its success.

Objectives written for the evaluation level use an infinitive such as “judge.” For example, “Upon completion of this experience, the learner will be able to judge how the plan will work.” Similar words that may be used are assess, compare, rate, decide, argue, prepare, contrast, standardize, manage, construct, create, formulate, evaluate, or appraise.

A direct object of an evaluation-level objective may be “reliability.” For example, “Upon completion of this experience, the learner will be able to assess the reliability of the project.” Other direct objectives that may be used are generalizations, economies, consistencies, efficiencies, alternatives, accuracy, exactness, choices, means, or precision.

Objectives are invaluable parts of lesson plans, which are easier to prepare and understand if a pattern is developed and followed. A template can be constructed for lesson plans. The subject, problem, or title tells the educator and the employees at one glance what will be presented, discussed, and learned.

Managers wishing to develop objectives may use the suggested format and substitute any infinitive and direct object of their choice for the ones used in the examples. They need to state specifically the learning that is expected to result from the session for the objective to be complete.

Educators usually list them in order of the hierarchy. It is possible that there will not need to be an objective at the top levels. This occurs if the instructor expects that the learner will not achieve the higher levels of performance. But be certain to start with several at the lower levels. If it is the first exposure to a subject, there may be only one or two that are above this level. As the learners become more proficient, the level of the objectives will move up to show they are making progress. A topic should not be finished until at least the application level has been achieved, which may take several sessions.

— Lynne Nannen Robertson, PhD, RD, LD, was president of Creative Concepts Foodservice Consulting. She has consulted and conducted seminars providing continuing education on all phases of foodservice management to dietitians and managers throughout the United States.

 

Further Reading
• “Personnel Development” by Lynne N. Robertson, a course published by Nutrition Dimension, Inc
• Supervision in the Hospitality Industry by Jack E. Miller, John R. Walker, and Karen Eich Drummond
• Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Book 1: Cognitive Domain by Benjamin S. Bloom and David R. Krathwohl

 

Learning Objectives
After completing this continuing education exercise, the student should be able to:
1. Compare andragogy with pedagogy.
2. List the elements that explain how adults learn.
3. Identify the levels of the cognitive domain.
4. List the five ingredients in good teaching.
5. Explain how lesson plans are prepared.
6. Explain the parts of a behavioral objective.

Examination

1. The basic assumption of self-concept as it relates to adult learners is:
a. they prefer to be told what is important to learn.
b. they depend on the teacher to tell them when they have learned.
c. they prefer to have a deadline set for them.
d. they are self-directive.

2. The basic assumption of time perspective as it relates to adult learners is:
a. they like to learn things that are unrelated to what they have done.
b. they like to learn things that they can use immediately.
c. they can concentrate on material for extended periods of time.
d. they do not need practice sessions to reinforce learning.

3. The basic assumption of climate as it relates to adult learners is:
a. they work best in a formal situation.
b. they thrive on competition.
c. they work best in an atmosphere of respect and friendliness.
d. they prefer not to have written information provided.

4. The basic assumption of activities as it relates to adult learners is:
a. they like to use experimental techniques to reinforce learning.
b. they prefer to memorize facts.
c. they like the subject matter to be organized and outlined.
d. they prefer to be told what the correct method should be.

5. Adults want to evaluate the success of the learning process for themselves.
a. True
b. False

6. Adults learn best:
a. in a formal classroom setting.
b. through rote memorization.
c. using principles of andragogy.
d. when their job is on the line.
e. when peer pressure forces them to learn.

7. The best way to reinforce learning is:
a. successful completion of quizzes.
b. to provide books on the selected subject.
c. to point out bad working habits.
d. to practice the new method.

8. The three kinds of knowledge that a teacher conveys are:
a. concepts, theories, and details.
b. concepts, theories, and evaluation.
c. practice, theories, and details.
d. concepts, standards, and details.

9. The purpose of objectives is to:
a. outline needed repetition.
b. establish standards of learning.
c. demonstrate acceptable variations.
d. show a step-by-step procedure.

10. The levels of learning are:
a. explanation, comprehension, application, completion, and synthesis.
b. knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, and synthesis.
c. knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, and synthesis.
d. explanation, understanding, application, completion, and synthesis.